This date, April 3, in 1942, Japanese forces began an assault on the United States and Filipino troops on the Bataan Peninsula.
And, same date, in 1946, Japanese Lt. General Masaharu Homma was executed in the Philippines for leading the Bataan Death March.
[Photo:
A burial detail of Filipino and prisoners of war uses improvised
litters to carry fallen comrades at Camp O'Donnell, Capas, Tarlac, 1942,
following the Bataan Death March.]
The Bataan Death March was the
forcible transfer by the Imperial Japanese Army of 60,000–80,000
Filipino and American prisoners of war from Saisaih Point, Bagac, Bataan
and Mariveles to Camp O'Donnell, Capas, Tarlac, via San Fernando,
Pampanga, where the prisoners were loaded onto trains. The transfer
began on April 9, 1942, after the three-month Battle of Bataan in the
Philippines during World War II.
The total distance marched from
Mariveles to San Fernando and from the Capas Train Station to Camp
O'Donnell is variously reported by differing sources as between 60 and
70 miles.
Differing sources also report widely differing prisoner
of war casualties prior to reaching Camp O'Donnell: from 5,000 to
18,000 Filipino deaths and 500 to 650 American deaths during the march.
The march was characterized by severe physical abuse and wanton
killings, and was later judged by an Allied military commission to be a
Japanese war crime.
Masaharu Homma (November 27, 1887 – April 3,
1946) was a lieutenant general in the Imperial Japanese Army during
World War II. Homma commanded the Japanese 14th Army which invaded the
Philippines and perpetrated the Bataan Death March. After the war, Homma
was convicted of war crimes relating to the actions of troops under his
direct command and executed by firing squad on April 3, 1946.
Homma
was born on Sado Island, in the Sea of Japan off Niigata Prefecture. He
graduated in the 14th class of the Imperial Japanese Army Academy in
1907, and in the 27th class of the Army Staff College in 1915. In 1917
he was attached to the East Lancashire Regiment, and in 1918 served with
the British Expeditionary Force in France, being awarded the Military
Cross.
From 1930 to 1932, Homma was again sent as a military
attaché to the United Kingdom, where his proficiency in the English
language was useful. He was also assigned to be part of the Japanese
delegation to the Geneva Disarmament Conference in 1932 and served with
the Press Section of the Army Ministry from 1932 to 1933.
In 1937,
Homma was appointed aide-de-camp to Prince Chichibu, a brother of
Emperor Shōwa. With him, he made a diplomatic tour in Europe which ended
in Germany. There he attended the Nuremberg rally and met Adolf Hitler,
with whom the prince tried to boost relations.
With the start of
the Second Sino-Japanese War, Homma was appointed commander of the IJA
27th Division in China from 1938 to 1940 and directed the blockade of
the foreign concessions in Tientsin, where he led the negotiations with
the British. After the fall of Nanking, he declared publicly that
"unless peace is achieved immediately it will be disastrous." He was
promoted to lieutenant general in July 1938.
With the start of the
Pacific War, Homma was named commander of the 43,110-man IJA 14th Army
and tasked with the invasion of the Philippines. He ordered his troops
to treat the Filipinos not as enemies but as friends, and respect their
customs and religion.
In one instance, on his approach to Manila,
Homma stopped his columns and ordered the men to clean up and tighten
formations, knowing that unkempt soldiers are more likely to loot and
rape.
His approach towards Filipino civilians earned him the
enmity of his superior, General Count Hisaichi Terauchi, commander of
the Southern Army, who sent adverse reports about Homma to Tokyo from
his headquarters in Saigon.
There was also a growing subversion
within Homma's command by a small group of insubordinates, under the
influence of Colonel Tsuji Masanobu. In Homma's name, they sent out
secret orders against his policies, including ordering the execution of
Filipino Chief Justice José Abad Santos and attempted execution of
former Speaker of the House of Representatives Manuel Roxas, which Homma
found out about in time to stop.
Worried about the stalled
offensive in Luzon, Hirohito pressed Army Chief of Staff Hajime Sugiyama
twice in January 1942 to increase troop strength and launch a quick
knockout on Bataan. Following these orders, Sugiyama put pressure on
Homma to renew his attacks. The resulting Battle of Bataan commencing in
January 1942, was one of the most intense in the campaign.
The
prisoners and refugees had to be moved north to get them out of the way
of Homma’s final assault on Corregidor, but there was simply not enough
mechanized transport to move the masses of wounded, sick, and weakened
remainder of troops.
The deteriorating relationship between Homma
and Sugiyama led to the removal of Homma from command shortly after the
fall of Corregidor, and he was thereafter commander of the 14th Army in
name only.
The first atrocity, attributed to Colonel Masanobu
Tsuji, occurred when approximately 350 to 400 Filipino officers and NCOs
under his supervision were summarily executed near the Pantingan river
after they had surrendered.
Colonel Tsuji, acting against General
Homma's wishes that the prisoners be transferred peacefully, had issued
clandestine orders to Japanese officers to summarily execute all
American “captives.”
During the march, prisoners received little
food or water, and many died. Prisoners were subjected to severe
physical abuse, including being beaten and tortured. On the march, the
“sun treatment” was a common form of torture. Prisoners were forced to
sit in sweltering direct sunlight, without helmets or other head
covering.
Anyone who asked for water was shot dead. Some men were
told to strip naked or sit within sight of fresh, cool water. Trucks
drove over some of those who fell or succumbed to fatigue, and "cleanup
crews" put to death those too weak to continue. Some marchers were
randomly stabbed by bayonets.
The Imperial General Headquarters
regarded Homma as not aggressive enough in war, and too lenient with the
Filipino people in peace, and he was subsequently forced into
retirement in August 1943. Homma retired from the military and lived in
semi-seclusion in Japan until the end of the war.
After the
surrender of Japan in September 1945, the American occupation
authorities arrested Homma and extradited him to the Philippines where
he was tried by an American tribunal on 48 counts of violating
international rules of war relating to the atrocities committed by
troops under his command during the Bataan Death March.
It is not
clear whether Homma ordered the atrocities that occurred during the
march, but it is clear that his lack of administrative expertise and his
inability to adequately delegate authority and control his men helped
to enable the atrocities. After American-Filipino forces surrendered the
Bataan Peninsula, Homma turned the logistics of handling the estimated
25,000 prisoners to Major-General Yoshitake Kawane.
Homma
publicly stated that the POWs would be treated fairly. A plan was
formulated, approved by Homma, to transport and march the prisoners to
Camp O'Donnell. However, the plan was severely flawed, as the American
and Filipino POWs were starving, were weak with malaria, and numbered
not 25,000 but 76,000 men, far more than any Japanese plan had
anticipated.
At his trial, Homma also claimed that he was so
preoccupied with the plans for the Corregidor assault that he had
forgotten about the prisoners’ treatment, believing that his officers
were properly handling the matter. He claimed that he did not learn of
the atrocity until after the war, even though his headquarters were only
500 feet from the route of the march.
On February 11, 1946, Homma
was convicted of all counts and sentenced, “...to be shot to death with
musketry." Homma was executed by firing squad by American forces on
April 3, 1946, outside Manila.
General Douglas MacArthur in his
review of the case wrote, "If this defendant does not deserve his
judicial fate, none in jurisdictional history ever did. There can be no
greater, more heinous or more dangerous crime than the mass destruction,
under guise of military authority or military necessity, of helpless
men incapable of further contribution to war effort. A failure of law
process to punish such acts of criminal enormity would threaten the very
fabric of world society."
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